72 Raga Lakshanas
History of Raga lakshana
Since the raga system forms the foundation of Indian music, every writer of note from Bharata downwards has paid attention to the clear elucidation of the subject. Many writers mention ten lakshanas under which the individuality of a raga can be studied. The ten lakshanas enumerated however, were not, in all cases identical.
Bharata in his Natya Sastra ( 4th cent B.C. ) says :--
Bharata in his Natya Sastra ( 4th cent B.C. ) says :--
Graha, amsa, tara, mandra, nyasa, apanyasa, alpatva, bahutva, shadava and audava are the ten lakshanas of jatis.
Jati was the term that was used in early times to denot a raga. In the Ramayana, the word Jati is used and not the word raga. The word raga comes to be used in the musical sense only in the post-Bharata period. Audava is the later from of a auduva.
The Sangita ratnakara (13th cent. A.D.) of Sarangadeva mentions the following trayodasa, 13 lakshanas :--
Jati was the term that was used in early times to denot a raga. In the Ramayana, the word Jati is used and not the word raga. The word raga comes to be used in the musical sense only in the post-Bharata period. Audava is the later from of a auduva.
The Sangita ratnakara (13th cent. A.D.) of Sarangadeva mentions the following trayodasa, 13 lakshanas :--
Graha, amsa, tara, mandra, nyasa, apanyasa, sanyasa, vinyasa, bahutva, alpatva, antara marga, shadava and audava.
The Sangitha sudha (17th centuary A.D.) of Raghunatha Naik also mentions these thirteen lakshanas :--
The Sangitha sudha (17th centuary A.D.) of Raghunatha Naik also mentions these thirteen lakshanas :--
Venkatamakhi in his Chaturdandi prakasika says :--
Graha, amsa, mandra, tara, nyasa, apanyasa, sanyasa, vinyasa, bahutva, alpatva.
Shadava, audava and antara marga were omitted, because they became separate types of janya ragas.
A few of these lakshanas have either become obsolete or/are of mere academic interest to us at the present day. As a result of the progress made in music during the recent centuries, we are now in a position to give a more amplified and scientific description of the ragas and define their scope in clearer and more accurate terms. An analytical study of all the available compositions in a raga not only throws a flood of light on the lakshana of that raga but also helps us to see its various facets, fix its ranjaka prayogas, visesha sancharas, sanchara kramas, etc. Compositions, it may be pointed out, are ragas in a crystalline form.
The comprehensive study of a raga includes a study of its lakshana, the prominent lakshyas (compositions) in it and its charithra (history).
Shadava, audava and antara marga were omitted, because they became separate types of janya ragas.
A few of these lakshanas have either become obsolete or/are of mere academic interest to us at the present day. As a result of the progress made in music during the recent centuries, we are now in a position to give a more amplified and scientific description of the ragas and define their scope in clearer and more accurate terms. An analytical study of all the available compositions in a raga not only throws a flood of light on the lakshana of that raga but also helps us to see its various facets, fix its ranjaka prayogas, visesha sancharas, sanchara kramas, etc. Compositions, it may be pointed out, are ragas in a crystalline form.
The comprehensive study of a raga includes a study of its lakshana, the prominent lakshyas (compositions) in it and its charithra (history).
The lakshana of a raga at the present day can be studied under the following 72 heads :--
(1) Whether janaka or janya.
JANAKA RAGA
(2) If Janaka, its serial number in the scheme of 72 melakartas and the number and name of the chakra to which it belongs. Its sankhya sanketa (mnemonics): Agni-go for the 15th mela.
(3) The swaras taken by the mela raga. Its swara sanketa (mnemonics) ra gu ma dha nu for the 15th mela.
(4) Whether each note of the raga is a samvadi of some other note occurring in the raga, as in the case of Harikambnoji;
s-p, r-p, m-n, p-S, g-d.
(5) Whether the two tetrachords of the janaka raga are symmetrical as in the case of Mayamalavagaula and Kharaharapriya.
(6) Whether it is a janaka raga claiming a large number of janya ragas. Ex, 22, 28 and 29.
(7) Whether a Murchanakaraka mela (Ex. 22) or an Amurchchanakaraka mela (Ex. 39). If the former, the scales that it gives rise to through the process of modal shift of tonic.
[ Note :—There are no sarva swara murchchanakaraka malas. There are murchchanakaraka melas giving rise to 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 melas by the process of modal shift of tonic.]
(8) Special features of its serial number, if any. Thus in the case of the following pairs of serial numbers, the reversal of the digits of the first number gives rise to the number of the corresponding suddha madhyama melakartas. Ex. 40 and 4, 51 and 15, 62 and 26.
In the case of the pairs: 15 and 51; and 26 and 62, the reversal of the number of the suddha madhyama melakarta gives rise to the number of the corresponding prati madhyama karta.
JANYA RAGA
(9) If the raga taken for study is a janya raga, the name and serial number of the melakarta from which it is derived.
(10) Differences of opinion if any, concerning the correct janaka mela of the janya raga and the arguments for and against.
JANAKA RAGA
(2) If Janaka, its serial number in the scheme of 72 melakartas and the number and name of the chakra to which it belongs. Its sankhya sanketa (mnemonics): Agni-go for the 15th mela.
(3) The swaras taken by the mela raga. Its swara sanketa (mnemonics) ra gu ma dha nu for the 15th mela.
(4) Whether each note of the raga is a samvadi of some other note occurring in the raga, as in the case of Harikambnoji;
s-p, r-p, m-n, p-S, g-d.
(5) Whether the two tetrachords of the janaka raga are symmetrical as in the case of Mayamalavagaula and Kharaharapriya.
(6) Whether it is a janaka raga claiming a large number of janya ragas. Ex, 22, 28 and 29.
(7) Whether a Murchanakaraka mela (Ex. 22) or an Amurchchanakaraka mela (Ex. 39). If the former, the scales that it gives rise to through the process of modal shift of tonic.
[ Note :—There are no sarva swara murchchanakaraka malas. There are murchchanakaraka melas giving rise to 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 melas by the process of modal shift of tonic.]
(8) Special features of its serial number, if any. Thus in the case of the following pairs of serial numbers, the reversal of the digits of the first number gives rise to the number of the corresponding suddha madhyama melakartas. Ex. 40 and 4, 51 and 15, 62 and 26.
In the case of the pairs: 15 and 51; and 26 and 62, the reversal of the number of the suddha madhyama melakarta gives rise to the number of the corresponding prati madhyama karta.
JANYA RAGA
(9) If the raga taken for study is a janya raga, the name and serial number of the melakarta from which it is derived.
(10) Differences of opinion if any, concerning the correct janaka mela of the janya raga and the arguments for and against.
(11) The other possible janaka melas that can be assigned to this raga from the point of view of the swaras taken and the reasons for the preference of the particular mela.
(12) Whether a murchanakaraka janya raga (Ex. Mohana) or otherwise. If the former, the janya ragas that it gives rise to, by the shift of the tonic note. For example, Mohana’s ri as sa gives Madhyamavati ; and its pa as sa gives Suddha saveri and so on.
Murchanakaraka janya ragas admit of the divisions :
(a) Sarva swara murchanakaraka raga, wherein every one of its swaras gives rise to a new raga by the shift of the tonic note ; ex. Mohana.
(b) Katipaya swara murchanakaraka raga, wherein only one or some of its swaras give rise to new ragas by the shift of the tonic note. Ex. Kuntalavarali and Abhogi.
Under this section, we may have the classification Ekamurchchanakaraka raga, Dvi-murchchanakaraka raga,
Tri-murchchanakaraka raga etc.
(13) The arohana and avarohana of the raga and any difference of opinion concerning the same. As a rule, in a raga, it is the frequently occurring phrases that are codified and presented as its arohana and avarohana. Sometimes an alpa prayoga is incorporated in the arohana and avarohana of a raga in order to indicate its precise janaka mela ; examples are Natta and Sriraga. Rare sancharas are also sometimes incorporated in the arohana and avarohana of ragas in order to clearly reveal and establish their melodic individuality.
(14) Whether the arohana and avarohana are symmetrical or otherwise.
Swara symmetry, Numerical symmetry
A raga is said to possess a symmetrical arohana and avarohana, when the number of swaras present in its ascent and descent is equal. Such ragas have identical swaras in the ascent and descent as Hamsadhvani (s r g p n S —S n p g r s ). All mela ragas and shadava and audava ragas like Sriranjani and Mohana are examples.
A raga possessing Swara symmetry (i.e., identical swaras in the ascent and descent) need not necessarily possess swarasthana symmetry. Bhairavi for example, has swara symmetry but not swarasthana symmetry, since it takes chaturssruti dha in the arohana and suddha dha in the avarohana.
An audava raga like Andolika or Mayuradhvani (s r m p n S – S n d m r s) does not possess a symmetrical arohana and avarohana; because pa which is present in the arohana is dropped in the avarohana and its place is taken by dha. There is thus only a numerical symmetry and not a swara symmetry. Kannadagaula (s r g m p n S – S n d p m g s) is another example.
Of course, only non-vakra ragas are contemplated in this section. In Krama Sampurna, Shadava and Avdava ragas, viloma version of the arohana, gives rise to the avarohana. But in vakra ragas this is not the case. Kuranji raga however is an exception. Here the viloma version of the arohana, gives rise to the avarohana - s n. s r g m p d — d p m g r s n. s
The swara graph and the swarasthana graph of a raga’s arohana and avarohana will reveal the contour of the raga and the symmetrical or non-symmetrical structure of its arohana and avarohana.
(15) Whether a swasthana visada i.e. suddha swara visada raga as Hamsadhvani or gamaka-sruti-prayoga visada raga like Ahiri.
In the latter type of ragas. the graced rendering of the particular notes is mandatory.
(16) Whether deergha swaras, kampita swaras and janta swaras are present in the arohana and avaronana. Such notes, if present, are vital to the entity of the raga. Examples are Jaganmohini, Manirangu, Begada and Ritigaula.
(17) Whether the foreign note is incorporated in the arohana and avarohana. This appilies only to bhashanga ragas.
Asaveri, Bhairavi, Mukhari, Chintamani and Saranga are examples of bhashanga ragas wherein the foreign note is heard while singing the arohana and avarohana.
This type of bhashnga raga admits of two divisions
(a) Wherein the foreign note is incorporated in the arohana : Ex. Bhairavi.
(b) Wherein the foreign note is incorporated in the avarohana Ex. Mukhari.
(18) Names of the swaras taken by the raga and their frequencies
(19) Whether each note of the raga is a samvadi swara of some other note occurring in the raga. Thus in Mohana raga, the following notes are samvadi pairs: sa and pa ; ri and dha ; dha and ga.
(20) Varja or non-varja; if varja, swarantara, audava, or shadava. (varja – pronounced as varjya)
(12) Whether a murchanakaraka janya raga (Ex. Mohana) or otherwise. If the former, the janya ragas that it gives rise to, by the shift of the tonic note. For example, Mohana’s ri as sa gives Madhyamavati ; and its pa as sa gives Suddha saveri and so on.
Murchanakaraka janya ragas admit of the divisions :
(a) Sarva swara murchanakaraka raga, wherein every one of its swaras gives rise to a new raga by the shift of the tonic note ; ex. Mohana.
(b) Katipaya swara murchanakaraka raga, wherein only one or some of its swaras give rise to new ragas by the shift of the tonic note. Ex. Kuntalavarali and Abhogi.
Under this section, we may have the classification Ekamurchchanakaraka raga, Dvi-murchchanakaraka raga,
Tri-murchchanakaraka raga etc.
(13) The arohana and avarohana of the raga and any difference of opinion concerning the same. As a rule, in a raga, it is the frequently occurring phrases that are codified and presented as its arohana and avarohana. Sometimes an alpa prayoga is incorporated in the arohana and avarohana of a raga in order to indicate its precise janaka mela ; examples are Natta and Sriraga. Rare sancharas are also sometimes incorporated in the arohana and avarohana of ragas in order to clearly reveal and establish their melodic individuality.
(14) Whether the arohana and avarohana are symmetrical or otherwise.
Swara symmetry, Numerical symmetry
A raga is said to possess a symmetrical arohana and avarohana, when the number of swaras present in its ascent and descent is equal. Such ragas have identical swaras in the ascent and descent as Hamsadhvani (s r g p n S —S n p g r s ). All mela ragas and shadava and audava ragas like Sriranjani and Mohana are examples.
A raga possessing Swara symmetry (i.e., identical swaras in the ascent and descent) need not necessarily possess swarasthana symmetry. Bhairavi for example, has swara symmetry but not swarasthana symmetry, since it takes chaturssruti dha in the arohana and suddha dha in the avarohana.
An audava raga like Andolika or Mayuradhvani (s r m p n S – S n d m r s) does not possess a symmetrical arohana and avarohana; because pa which is present in the arohana is dropped in the avarohana and its place is taken by dha. There is thus only a numerical symmetry and not a swara symmetry. Kannadagaula (s r g m p n S – S n d p m g s) is another example.
Of course, only non-vakra ragas are contemplated in this section. In Krama Sampurna, Shadava and Avdava ragas, viloma version of the arohana, gives rise to the avarohana. But in vakra ragas this is not the case. Kuranji raga however is an exception. Here the viloma version of the arohana, gives rise to the avarohana - s n. s r g m p d — d p m g r s n. s
The swara graph and the swarasthana graph of a raga’s arohana and avarohana will reveal the contour of the raga and the symmetrical or non-symmetrical structure of its arohana and avarohana.
(15) Whether a swasthana visada i.e. suddha swara visada raga as Hamsadhvani or gamaka-sruti-prayoga visada raga like Ahiri.
In the latter type of ragas. the graced rendering of the particular notes is mandatory.
(16) Whether deergha swaras, kampita swaras and janta swaras are present in the arohana and avaronana. Such notes, if present, are vital to the entity of the raga. Examples are Jaganmohini, Manirangu, Begada and Ritigaula.
(17) Whether the foreign note is incorporated in the arohana and avarohana. This appilies only to bhashanga ragas.
Asaveri, Bhairavi, Mukhari, Chintamani and Saranga are examples of bhashanga ragas wherein the foreign note is heard while singing the arohana and avarohana.
This type of bhashnga raga admits of two divisions
(a) Wherein the foreign note is incorporated in the arohana : Ex. Bhairavi.
(b) Wherein the foreign note is incorporated in the avarohana Ex. Mukhari.
(18) Names of the swaras taken by the raga and their frequencies
(19) Whether each note of the raga is a samvadi swara of some other note occurring in the raga. Thus in Mohana raga, the following notes are samvadi pairs: sa and pa ; ri and dha ; dha and ga.
(20) Varja or non-varja; if varja, swarantara, audava, or shadava. (varja – pronounced as varjya)
(21) Whether vakra or krama (i.e., non-vakra); if vakra, whether the arohana or avarohana or both are vakra.
The vakra swaras and the vakrantya swaras and the compass of vakratva in each case. Also, whether the raga is an ekaswara vakra raga or dviswara vakra raga or triswara vakra raga or chaturswara vakra raga.
[A vakra arohana or avarohana does not necessarily imply that a swara is repeated in the course of its progression. For example, in the arohana of Katana kutuhalam (s r m d n g p S) there is no repetition, whereas in the arohana of Anandabhairavi (s g r g m p d p S), the gandhara and panchama repeat.]
(22) In the case of ubhaya vakra ragas, whether the number of vakra swaras in the arohana and avarohana is equal or otherwise. For example, in Nilambari, there is one vakra swara in the arohana and one vakra swara in the avarohana; but in Sahana, the arohana has one vakra swara and the avarohana, two vakra swaras. Thus this raga has an ekaswara vakra arohana and a dviswara vakra avarohana,
(23) Whether Nishadantya, Dhaivatantya, Panchamantya or Madhyamantya.
(24) Whether Upanga or Bhashanga.
(25) If bhashanga, whether it is an ekanya swara bhashanga raga, or dvi-anya swara bhashanga raga or tri-anya swara bhashanga raga.
(26) The foreign note or notes met with, and the sancharas wherein they figure.
(27) Whether the anya swara and the swakiya swara are of equal status and importance, as in Bhairavi aad Athana.
(28) Whether the anya swaras are jiva swaras and nyasa swaras. In a bhashanga raga, it is a rule that neither the swakiya swara nor the anya swara can be an amsa swara or a resting note. The anya swara may be a jiva swara.
NOTE—All the points of lakshana from 29 onwards apply to both janaka ragas and janya ragas.
(29) Jiva swaras of the raga.
There are instances of ragas like Yadukulakambhoji and Nadanamakriya which have different jiva swaras in their arohana and avarohana.
(30) Graha swaras of the raga.
Graha swara is the note on which melodies in the raga can commence. Nishada is a graha swara for Bhairavi. A raga may have more than one graha swara.
The vakra swaras and the vakrantya swaras and the compass of vakratva in each case. Also, whether the raga is an ekaswara vakra raga or dviswara vakra raga or triswara vakra raga or chaturswara vakra raga.
[A vakra arohana or avarohana does not necessarily imply that a swara is repeated in the course of its progression. For example, in the arohana of Katana kutuhalam (s r m d n g p S) there is no repetition, whereas in the arohana of Anandabhairavi (s g r g m p d p S), the gandhara and panchama repeat.]
(22) In the case of ubhaya vakra ragas, whether the number of vakra swaras in the arohana and avarohana is equal or otherwise. For example, in Nilambari, there is one vakra swara in the arohana and one vakra swara in the avarohana; but in Sahana, the arohana has one vakra swara and the avarohana, two vakra swaras. Thus this raga has an ekaswara vakra arohana and a dviswara vakra avarohana,
(23) Whether Nishadantya, Dhaivatantya, Panchamantya or Madhyamantya.
(24) Whether Upanga or Bhashanga.
(25) If bhashanga, whether it is an ekanya swara bhashanga raga, or dvi-anya swara bhashanga raga or tri-anya swara bhashanga raga.
(26) The foreign note or notes met with, and the sancharas wherein they figure.
(27) Whether the anya swara and the swakiya swara are of equal status and importance, as in Bhairavi aad Athana.
(28) Whether the anya swaras are jiva swaras and nyasa swaras. In a bhashanga raga, it is a rule that neither the swakiya swara nor the anya swara can be an amsa swara or a resting note. The anya swara may be a jiva swara.
NOTE—All the points of lakshana from 29 onwards apply to both janaka ragas and janya ragas.
(29) Jiva swaras of the raga.
There are instances of ragas like Yadukulakambhoji and Nadanamakriya which have different jiva swaras in their arohana and avarohana.
(30) Graha swaras of the raga.
Graha swara is the note on which melodies in the raga can commence. Nishada is a graha swara for Bhairavi. A raga may have more than one graha swara.
(31) Nyasa swaras admissible in the raga.
The notes which are purna (major) nyasas and notes which are alpa (minor) nyasas in the raga. In Natakuranji, the panchama is an alpa nyasa. In Shanmukhapriya, Madhyama is a purna nyasa. In Saranga raga, ga is not a nyasa swara but pa is a good nyasa swara.
(32) The Amsa swaras or resting notes
These are notes around which one can weave an alapana. One can sustain for a length of time on a resting note in a raga. Dirghathva is the characteristic feature of an amsa swara. Every note around which an alapana can be developed will be a nyasa swara; but the converse need not necessarily be true. For example, in Athana, dha is a nyasa swara but not a note on which one can rest and weave round an alapana. The kaisiki ni of Anandahhairavi is another similar case. Ga in Sankaraabharana is both a nyasa swara and a note around which one can develop an alapana. Resting notes are stable notes in the raga and admit of a plain rendering.
(33) Raga ranjaka combinations—key phrases or cardinal phrases; sancharas or pidippus; catches; pakad, in Hindusthani music.
Examples: d p g ; r s in Manji.
S S p p n d m in Huseni.
S p m p g m p in Saranga.
(34) Visesha sancharas ie, phrases not in accordance with the raga’s arohana and avarohana krama, that the raga admits of.
In every raga, phrases in accordance with the contour of the arohana and avarohana and either covered by the arohana and avarohana or implied in the same, can validly come. In a few ragas, phrases which are not in accordance with the arohana and avarohana krama come in, to enrich the beauty of the raga. Such phrases are known as visesha sancharas.
Examples: S n p and S d p of Sankarabbarana; p n S d p of Dhanyasi and m g s of Kambhoji.
(35) If the raga belongs to any group like ghana panchaka, Arabhi is an example.
(36) The langhana, durbala or weak notes in the raga.
Such notes will not occur as long notes and they will be just touched in passing; for example, the ga in the phrase m g r s r Arabhi. Such notes are weak and can neither be emphasized nor made nyasa.
(37) The janta swara and the dattu swara prayogas that the raga admits of. In a dattu prayoga, the initial note and the terminal note (dattu swara) will be found to bear a samvadi or anuvadi relationship.
(38) The characteristic srutis that suggest the melodic entity, individuality and color of the raga.
Examples: The Ekasruti rishabha in Gaula raga, the Tivra antara gandhara in Devagandhari raga and Tivra Kakali Nishada in Kuranji raga.
(39) Whether there are any phrases, wherein a note occasionally deviates from its pitch and is rendered either slightly sharp or flat. For example, the notes ma and ga in the phrases: d m d n s in Todi and g g r s in Surati respectively
(40) Anya sthana swaras if any ; that is whether any note in the raga is rendered within the zonal jurisdiction of a contiguous note, for example ga in the phrase g r s in Asaveri raga.
The frequencies of the notes get altered according to the context wherein they occur—In S n n S in Nilambari, ni is sharpened. In the phrases m m g g m and g r s in Todi raga the frequencies of ga differ in the two phrases. In the phrase m p d in Yadukulakambhoji raga, the panchama swara is sounded on its svasthana. But in the phrase s p d s in the same raga, the panchama swara in the mandra sthayi is not sounded on its svasthana but in a position slightly higher. The panchama in the phrase s r p g in Kanada raga and the Rishabha in the phrase m g p m r of Surati raga are other examples of anya sthana swaras.
The notes which are purna (major) nyasas and notes which are alpa (minor) nyasas in the raga. In Natakuranji, the panchama is an alpa nyasa. In Shanmukhapriya, Madhyama is a purna nyasa. In Saranga raga, ga is not a nyasa swara but pa is a good nyasa swara.
(32) The Amsa swaras or resting notes
These are notes around which one can weave an alapana. One can sustain for a length of time on a resting note in a raga. Dirghathva is the characteristic feature of an amsa swara. Every note around which an alapana can be developed will be a nyasa swara; but the converse need not necessarily be true. For example, in Athana, dha is a nyasa swara but not a note on which one can rest and weave round an alapana. The kaisiki ni of Anandahhairavi is another similar case. Ga in Sankaraabharana is both a nyasa swara and a note around which one can develop an alapana. Resting notes are stable notes in the raga and admit of a plain rendering.
(33) Raga ranjaka combinations—key phrases or cardinal phrases; sancharas or pidippus; catches; pakad, in Hindusthani music.
Examples: d p g ; r s in Manji.
S S p p n d m in Huseni.
S p m p g m p in Saranga.
(34) Visesha sancharas ie, phrases not in accordance with the raga’s arohana and avarohana krama, that the raga admits of.
In every raga, phrases in accordance with the contour of the arohana and avarohana and either covered by the arohana and avarohana or implied in the same, can validly come. In a few ragas, phrases which are not in accordance with the arohana and avarohana krama come in, to enrich the beauty of the raga. Such phrases are known as visesha sancharas.
Examples: S n p and S d p of Sankarabbarana; p n S d p of Dhanyasi and m g s of Kambhoji.
(35) If the raga belongs to any group like ghana panchaka, Arabhi is an example.
(36) The langhana, durbala or weak notes in the raga.
Such notes will not occur as long notes and they will be just touched in passing; for example, the ga in the phrase m g r s r Arabhi. Such notes are weak and can neither be emphasized nor made nyasa.
(37) The janta swara and the dattu swara prayogas that the raga admits of. In a dattu prayoga, the initial note and the terminal note (dattu swara) will be found to bear a samvadi or anuvadi relationship.
(38) The characteristic srutis that suggest the melodic entity, individuality and color of the raga.
Examples: The Ekasruti rishabha in Gaula raga, the Tivra antara gandhara in Devagandhari raga and Tivra Kakali Nishada in Kuranji raga.
(39) Whether there are any phrases, wherein a note occasionally deviates from its pitch and is rendered either slightly sharp or flat. For example, the notes ma and ga in the phrases: d m d n s in Todi and g g r s in Surati respectively
(40) Anya sthana swaras if any ; that is whether any note in the raga is rendered within the zonal jurisdiction of a contiguous note, for example ga in the phrase g r s in Asaveri raga.
The frequencies of the notes get altered according to the context wherein they occur—In S n n S in Nilambari, ni is sharpened. In the phrases m m g g m and g r s in Todi raga the frequencies of ga differ in the two phrases. In the phrase m p d in Yadukulakambhoji raga, the panchama swara is sounded on its svasthana. But in the phrase s p d s in the same raga, the panchama swara in the mandra sthayi is not sounded on its svasthana but in a position slightly higher. The panchama in the phrase s r p g in Kanada raga and the Rishabha in the phrase m g p m r of Surati raga are other examples of anya sthana swaras.
(41) If a sarva swara gamaka varika raga or otherwise.
Examples. In Mohana, Todi and Kalyani ragas, all the notes admit of being sung with the kampita gamaka.
(42) Kampita swaras of the raga and the intensity, compass and speed of the shake in each case.
In some ragas the kampita rendering of a note or notes is obligatory and not optional; for example, the sadharana gandhara in Athana.
(43) The characteristic gamakas that bring out the swarupa of the raga.
There are instances of ragas wherein a note is subject to one variety of gamaka in the arohana and a different variety of gamaka in the avarohana, for example in Nata raga, the rishabha in the arohana is subject to nokku or stress and the same note in the avarohana is subject to kampita or shake.
(44) Whether a ghana, naya (rakti) or desya raga.
(45) Whether a suddha, chhayalaga or sankeerna raga.
(46) Whether it is a tristhayi raga i.e., admits of alapana in the mandra, madhya and tara sthayis without any restriction.
(47) Within the range of the three sthayis, the highest and the lowest notes if any, beyond which the raga sanchara should not extend.
The idea in prescribing the upper and lower limits in the sthayi for some ragas is to maintain intact their melodic individuality. This is done to prevent the suggestion of other ragas even in a remote manner. The appropriateness of this limitation will be realised from experience.
Examples are Khamas and Anandabhairavi which have no sanchara below the mandra sthayi nishada; and Saranga and Pantuvarali which have no sanchara above the tara sthayi gandhara.
(48) The tessitura of the raga i.e., whether the effective range of the sanchara is confined to a particular portion of the sthayi or sthayis. Examples are Desakshi and Athana, wherein the effective range is the uttaranga of the middle octave and the purvanga of the higher octave.
(49) Whether the raga is a Karnataka raga as Nilambari or a Desya raga as Hamirkalyani.
(50) Whether a major raga or a minor raga.
A raga which admits of a detailed alapana is a major raga. It is useful as a raga for paliavi exposition in concerts. As examples of ragas which admit of an extensive and intensive alapana may be mentioned, Todi, Saveri, Bhairavi, Kambhoji, Sankarabharana and Kalyani. As examples of minor ragas may be mentioned, Garudadhvani and Navarasa kannada.
Examples. In Mohana, Todi and Kalyani ragas, all the notes admit of being sung with the kampita gamaka.
(42) Kampita swaras of the raga and the intensity, compass and speed of the shake in each case.
In some ragas the kampita rendering of a note or notes is obligatory and not optional; for example, the sadharana gandhara in Athana.
(43) The characteristic gamakas that bring out the swarupa of the raga.
There are instances of ragas wherein a note is subject to one variety of gamaka in the arohana and a different variety of gamaka in the avarohana, for example in Nata raga, the rishabha in the arohana is subject to nokku or stress and the same note in the avarohana is subject to kampita or shake.
(44) Whether a ghana, naya (rakti) or desya raga.
(45) Whether a suddha, chhayalaga or sankeerna raga.
(46) Whether it is a tristhayi raga i.e., admits of alapana in the mandra, madhya and tara sthayis without any restriction.
(47) Within the range of the three sthayis, the highest and the lowest notes if any, beyond which the raga sanchara should not extend.
The idea in prescribing the upper and lower limits in the sthayi for some ragas is to maintain intact their melodic individuality. This is done to prevent the suggestion of other ragas even in a remote manner. The appropriateness of this limitation will be realised from experience.
Examples are Khamas and Anandabhairavi which have no sanchara below the mandra sthayi nishada; and Saranga and Pantuvarali which have no sanchara above the tara sthayi gandhara.
(48) The tessitura of the raga i.e., whether the effective range of the sanchara is confined to a particular portion of the sthayi or sthayis. Examples are Desakshi and Athana, wherein the effective range is the uttaranga of the middle octave and the purvanga of the higher octave.
(49) Whether the raga is a Karnataka raga as Nilambari or a Desya raga as Hamirkalyani.
(50) Whether a major raga or a minor raga.
A raga which admits of a detailed alapana is a major raga. It is useful as a raga for paliavi exposition in concerts. As examples of ragas which admit of an extensive and intensive alapana may be mentioned, Todi, Saveri, Bhairavi, Kambhoji, Sankarabharana and Kalyani. As examples of minor ragas may be mentioned, Garudadhvani and Navarasa kannada.
(51) Phrases which have to be used sparingly in the raga.
The undue repetition of an alpa or kvachit prayoga will result in abhava and consequent loss of melodic individuality. Normal and legitimate phrases can be sounded any number of times in a raga.
(52) The rasa or rasas ; i.e., the feeling or feelings that the raga is capable of creating.
Whether the raga is capable of portraying feelings like joy, sadness, courage, fear, disgust, compassion, love, wonder, surprise, laughter, pity, mirth, pathos, anger, heroism, mystery, pleading, repentance, tenderness (vatsalya), devotion, loneliness, forest lifs (detachment from the crowd), communion with nature, tranquillity, friendship or patriotism.
There are also the gana rasa pradhana ragas which evoke mere aesthetic joy. Ex: Katana kutihalam.
(53) Whether the raga is an auspicious one and hence useful for composing mangalam. Dhanyisi, Saurashtra, Vasanta, Ghaata, Madhyamavati, Sriraga, Surati, Kedaragaula and Mohana are useful for composing mangalams. Ragas like Ahiri and Varali are not useful for composing Mangalams.
(54) Whether the raga is useful for singing themes relating to varnana or description.
For example, Dhanyasi, Kedaragaula, Surati and Pantuvarali are useful for varnana.
(55) The curative effects of the raga.
(56) The extent of its use in the spheres of pure music and applied music.
Ragas of pronounced rasas like Ahiri are used in operas and dance dramas and ragas like Kedaragaula figure largely in purana pattanam and religious discourses. Ragas like Sahana and Nadanamakriya figure in namavalis. Nilambari, Anandabhairavi and Yadukulakambhoji figure in lullabies. Saindhavi, Punnagayarili, Kuranji and Navaroj figure in marriage songs and folk melodies. Devagandhari is used to recite churnikas and dandakas.
(57) Whether the raga derives its characteristic individuality by chauka kala sancharas or by madhyama kala sancharas.
As a-rule, all ragas admit of both chauka kala and madhyama kala sancharas. But this section is intended to cover cases like Arabhi, which shine more by madhyama kala sancharas and Devagandhari which shine more by chauka kala sancharas.
(58) Whether the raga is a popular raga or a scholarly raga.
Popular ragas can be sung even by musicians of average ability. But justice can be done to scholarly ragas only by vidvans. Further, a number of compositions representative of different kinds of musical forms exist in popular ragas.
Mohana and Anandabhairavi are popular ragas; but Ahiri, Narayanagaula and Manji are scholarly ragas.
(59) Whether the raga is a prasiddha (wellknown) raga or an apurva (rare) raga.
Sankarabhatana and Kambhoji are well-known ragas. But Dipaka and Srutiranjani are rare ragas.
(60) Whether it has closely allied ragas.
Bhairavi and Manji are closely allied ragas ; likewise are Darbar and Nayaki; Bilahari and Desakshi ; Mukhari and Salagabhairavi. It must however be noted that the ragas of the pairs, have each a separate melodic individuality.
The undue repetition of an alpa or kvachit prayoga will result in abhava and consequent loss of melodic individuality. Normal and legitimate phrases can be sounded any number of times in a raga.
(52) The rasa or rasas ; i.e., the feeling or feelings that the raga is capable of creating.
Whether the raga is capable of portraying feelings like joy, sadness, courage, fear, disgust, compassion, love, wonder, surprise, laughter, pity, mirth, pathos, anger, heroism, mystery, pleading, repentance, tenderness (vatsalya), devotion, loneliness, forest lifs (detachment from the crowd), communion with nature, tranquillity, friendship or patriotism.
There are also the gana rasa pradhana ragas which evoke mere aesthetic joy. Ex: Katana kutihalam.
(53) Whether the raga is an auspicious one and hence useful for composing mangalam. Dhanyisi, Saurashtra, Vasanta, Ghaata, Madhyamavati, Sriraga, Surati, Kedaragaula and Mohana are useful for composing mangalams. Ragas like Ahiri and Varali are not useful for composing Mangalams.
(54) Whether the raga is useful for singing themes relating to varnana or description.
For example, Dhanyasi, Kedaragaula, Surati and Pantuvarali are useful for varnana.
(55) The curative effects of the raga.
(56) The extent of its use in the spheres of pure music and applied music.
Ragas of pronounced rasas like Ahiri are used in operas and dance dramas and ragas like Kedaragaula figure largely in purana pattanam and religious discourses. Ragas like Sahana and Nadanamakriya figure in namavalis. Nilambari, Anandabhairavi and Yadukulakambhoji figure in lullabies. Saindhavi, Punnagayarili, Kuranji and Navaroj figure in marriage songs and folk melodies. Devagandhari is used to recite churnikas and dandakas.
(57) Whether the raga derives its characteristic individuality by chauka kala sancharas or by madhyama kala sancharas.
As a-rule, all ragas admit of both chauka kala and madhyama kala sancharas. But this section is intended to cover cases like Arabhi, which shine more by madhyama kala sancharas and Devagandhari which shine more by chauka kala sancharas.
(58) Whether the raga is a popular raga or a scholarly raga.
Popular ragas can be sung even by musicians of average ability. But justice can be done to scholarly ragas only by vidvans. Further, a number of compositions representative of different kinds of musical forms exist in popular ragas.
Mohana and Anandabhairavi are popular ragas; but Ahiri, Narayanagaula and Manji are scholarly ragas.
(59) Whether the raga is a prasiddha (wellknown) raga or an apurva (rare) raga.
Sankarabhatana and Kambhoji are well-known ragas. But Dipaka and Srutiranjani are rare ragas.
(60) Whether it has closely allied ragas.
Bhairavi and Manji are closely allied ragas ; likewise are Darbar and Nayaki; Bilahari and Desakshi ; Mukhari and Salagabhairavi. It must however be noted that the ragas of the pairs, have each a separate melodic individuality.
(61) Its distribution amongst musical forms.
In a raga like Sankarabharana, we find all forms like the gita, varna, kriti, pada, tillana, etc. But in a raga like Janaranjani, we find only kritis.
(62) Whether any unusual and vichitra prayogas pertaining to the raga are found in some classical compositions in it.
Ex. d , m r and n r g m d in the varna Chalamela in Sankarabharana raga, Ata tala.
(63) Ganakala or the time of the day or night and the season best suited for singing the raga. The gana kala niyama is only advisory and not mandatory.
(64) Whether there are tunes in the raga, known by specific names.
Anandakkalippu, Pancha chamaram, Mattakokilam and Kappal are all names signifying particular tunes. Sabdam, though a dance form, is also the name of a tune in Kambhoji raga, Chapu tala. All sabdas are sang to this tune. The practice of singing the stanzas of sabdas in different ragas like a ragamalika, is a recent development. At a time when the practice of writing songs in notation was not extensively cultivated, it was found useful to refer to tunes by specific names.
(65) Any story, anecdote, saying or tradition concerning the raga.
For example, the Adi Nata- Antya Surata tradition i.e., a concert should be commenced with Nata raga and concluded with Surati raga; Begada-migada ie, the raga Begada is as delicious as cream.
(66) Pictorial representation of the raga, if any: (Musical iconography).
The pictures of ragas and raginis communicate in a visual manner the power or the emotional effects of ragas. Also the Devamaya form of the raga; (see Somanatha’s Raga vibodha ).
Every raga has a nada tanu
(67) Other details of academic interest like the dvipa, colour, rasi, devata, etc., furnished for ragas in ancient works like Narada's Sangita makaranda. The Devata for Bangala raga is Ganesa and hence the appropriateness of the kriti, Girirajasuta of Tyagaraja in Bangala raga.
(68) Whether the raga and melodies in it can be sung or played in the madhyama sruti.
Ragas like Punnagavarali, Nadanamakriya, Jhanjhuiti, Kuranji, Navaroj and Kapi jingle wherein the highest note touched is a note below the tara shadja, are examples.
(69) Whether the raga is useful for singing slokas, padyas and viruthams.
Ragas like Sankarabharana and Kedaragaula are useful for this purpose but not ragas like Punnagavarali, and Ahiri.
(70) Whether the raga can figure aptly in a series of kalpana swaras in the ragamalika section of a Pallavi.
In a raga like Sankarabharana, we find all forms like the gita, varna, kriti, pada, tillana, etc. But in a raga like Janaranjani, we find only kritis.
(62) Whether any unusual and vichitra prayogas pertaining to the raga are found in some classical compositions in it.
Ex. d , m r and n r g m d in the varna Chalamela in Sankarabharana raga, Ata tala.
(63) Ganakala or the time of the day or night and the season best suited for singing the raga. The gana kala niyama is only advisory and not mandatory.
(64) Whether there are tunes in the raga, known by specific names.
Anandakkalippu, Pancha chamaram, Mattakokilam and Kappal are all names signifying particular tunes. Sabdam, though a dance form, is also the name of a tune in Kambhoji raga, Chapu tala. All sabdas are sang to this tune. The practice of singing the stanzas of sabdas in different ragas like a ragamalika, is a recent development. At a time when the practice of writing songs in notation was not extensively cultivated, it was found useful to refer to tunes by specific names.
(65) Any story, anecdote, saying or tradition concerning the raga.
For example, the Adi Nata- Antya Surata tradition i.e., a concert should be commenced with Nata raga and concluded with Surati raga; Begada-migada ie, the raga Begada is as delicious as cream.
(66) Pictorial representation of the raga, if any: (Musical iconography).
The pictures of ragas and raginis communicate in a visual manner the power or the emotional effects of ragas. Also the Devamaya form of the raga; (see Somanatha’s Raga vibodha ).
Every raga has a nada tanu
(67) Other details of academic interest like the dvipa, colour, rasi, devata, etc., furnished for ragas in ancient works like Narada's Sangita makaranda. The Devata for Bangala raga is Ganesa and hence the appropriateness of the kriti, Girirajasuta of Tyagaraja in Bangala raga.
(68) Whether the raga and melodies in it can be sung or played in the madhyama sruti.
Ragas like Punnagavarali, Nadanamakriya, Jhanjhuiti, Kuranji, Navaroj and Kapi jingle wherein the highest note touched is a note below the tara shadja, are examples.
(69) Whether the raga is useful for singing slokas, padyas and viruthams.
Ragas like Sankarabharana and Kedaragaula are useful for this purpose but not ragas like Punnagavarali, and Ahiri.
(70) Whether the raga can figure aptly in a series of kalpana swaras in the ragamalika section of a Pallavi.
(71) Whether the raga is present in other systems of music, including ancient Tamil music; if so, the names by which it is known in those systems.
Abheri for example corresponds to the Bhimpalas of Hindusthani music ; Kiravani corresponds to the harmonic minor scale of Western music ; Simhendramadhyama is present in the music of the gypsies of Europe. The Tamil pan, Kausikam corresponds to Bhairavi raga and so on.
(72) Significant meanings if any, attached to the name of the raga.
For instance, the name Athana (a + thana) is interpreted as meaning a raga which frees one from bondage, i.e., confers freedom from the cycle of births and deaths.
The raga Sri was given that name by purvacharyas because it took the notes of the sama gana scale and was hence auspicious and free from doshas. The song Sri Kamalambike in this raga, is appropriately sung as mangalam in the Dikshita school. It is the custom in the school of Syama Sastri , to conclude concerts with the song Palinchu Kamakshi in Madhyamavati raga. Concerts can be concluded with Sriraga or Madhyamavati.
Abheri for example corresponds to the Bhimpalas of Hindusthani music ; Kiravani corresponds to the harmonic minor scale of Western music ; Simhendramadhyama is present in the music of the gypsies of Europe. The Tamil pan, Kausikam corresponds to Bhairavi raga and so on.
(72) Significant meanings if any, attached to the name of the raga.
For instance, the name Athana (a + thana) is interpreted as meaning a raga which frees one from bondage, i.e., confers freedom from the cycle of births and deaths.
The raga Sri was given that name by purvacharyas because it took the notes of the sama gana scale and was hence auspicious and free from doshas. The song Sri Kamalambike in this raga, is appropriately sung as mangalam in the Dikshita school. It is the custom in the school of Syama Sastri , to conclude concerts with the song Palinchu Kamakshi in Madhyamavati raga. Concerts can be concluded with Sriraga or Madhyamavati.
Some other points for note
(1) Swaras occurring in a raga can be classified into :--
(a) Frequently occurring and prolongable as ga in Sankarabharana.
(b) Frequently occurring but nor prolongable as ga in Kedaragaula.
(c) Infrequently occurring and prolongable as chaturssruti ri in Asaveri raga.
(d) Infrequently occurring and not prolongable as suddha ma in Saranga.
(2) In some ragas, a note is sung in a pitch just approximating to its niyata sruti as the note dha in the phrase d p in Sankarabharana.
(3) In bhashanga ragas, melodies can commence on a foreign note, provided the foreign note is incorporated in the scale itself; for example, melodies can commence on the foreign note Chatussruti dhaivata in Bhairavi raga and Chatussruti rishabha in Asaveri raga.
(4) The clever way the raga name is split up or introduced in the sahityas of ragamalikas, kritis and other compositions containing the raga mudra and so as to give rise to an intelligent meaning is worthy of note.
(5) A raga like Hindolam takes notes which are met with first in the cycle of fourths.
(6) Notes which are recognized as appropriate for commencing melodies in the raga. These are generally notes which are common to both the arohana and avarohana and are also jiva svaras.
(7) In all sampurna ragas, pa is a resting note, since it is the samvadi of the tonic note. Likewise in all shadava ragas and audava ragas, which have pa in both the arohana and avarohana, pa will be a resting note.
(8) Whereas rakti prayogas serve to positively establish the entity of the raga, the nisheda prayogas have the exact opposite effect.
(9) Two phrases can come in a raga independently and in different contexts but not in succession. Thus s n p and m g s can come independently in Kambhoji raga but not in succession as S n p m g s. But the phrase m g S n p d S can come.
(1) Swaras occurring in a raga can be classified into :--
(a) Frequently occurring and prolongable as ga in Sankarabharana.
(b) Frequently occurring but nor prolongable as ga in Kedaragaula.
(c) Infrequently occurring and prolongable as chaturssruti ri in Asaveri raga.
(d) Infrequently occurring and not prolongable as suddha ma in Saranga.
(2) In some ragas, a note is sung in a pitch just approximating to its niyata sruti as the note dha in the phrase d p in Sankarabharana.
(3) In bhashanga ragas, melodies can commence on a foreign note, provided the foreign note is incorporated in the scale itself; for example, melodies can commence on the foreign note Chatussruti dhaivata in Bhairavi raga and Chatussruti rishabha in Asaveri raga.
(4) The clever way the raga name is split up or introduced in the sahityas of ragamalikas, kritis and other compositions containing the raga mudra and so as to give rise to an intelligent meaning is worthy of note.
(5) A raga like Hindolam takes notes which are met with first in the cycle of fourths.
(6) Notes which are recognized as appropriate for commencing melodies in the raga. These are generally notes which are common to both the arohana and avarohana and are also jiva svaras.
(7) In all sampurna ragas, pa is a resting note, since it is the samvadi of the tonic note. Likewise in all shadava ragas and audava ragas, which have pa in both the arohana and avarohana, pa will be a resting note.
(8) Whereas rakti prayogas serve to positively establish the entity of the raga, the nisheda prayogas have the exact opposite effect.
(9) Two phrases can come in a raga independently and in different contexts but not in succession. Thus s n p and m g s can come independently in Kambhoji raga but not in succession as S n p m g s. But the phrase m g S n p d S can come.
History of the raga
1. The origin and history of the raga and its name. For example, Nadaramakriya and Madhyamadi are the earlier names of Nadanamakriya and Madhyamavati. Ragas like Nadanamakriya and Kuranji owe their origin to folk melodies. Ragas like Sankarabharana and Todi can be traced to the murchanas of shadja grama.
2.The introduction of dha in Sriraga is a later development. It was introduced to ensure its status as a mela by the author of the Asampurna mela paddhati. The introduction of dha made the shadava avarohana become asampurna avarohana with two vakra swaras. Classical compositions like the gita-Minakshi Jayakamakshi, the Pancharatna kriti- Endaro mahanu bhavulu and the kriti- Vanajasana vinuta nata do not use the dhaivata.
Mayamalavagaula was mentioned as the janaka mela of Vasanta and Saurashtra at a time when the scheme of 72 melas had not been thought of. Suryakantam will now be their correct janaka mela.
Khamas which was an upanga raga in the time of Tyagaraia, has since become bhashanga.
3. Arsha prayogas ie, phrases which were once in use in the raga but later fell into desuetude. Examples are S d p m in the kriti Nidu murtini in Natakuranji and p n S in the gita Pahi Sri Ramachandra in Anandabhairavi. When those compositions are sung, they are sung with the arsha prayogas.
4. The classical works on music in which the raga is referred to.
5. The earliest composer to compose in this raga.
The earliest composition in this raga and other compositions of later composers which show newer facets of the raga. In Shanmukhapriya raga, Vaddenevaru of Tyagaraja and Martvere dikkvea rayya rama of the later composer, Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar are examples
6. Whether the name of the raga stands for or conveys, some other musical idea or concept.
Vasanta and Lalita for example, are the names of ragas and also the names of talas in the scheme of 108 talas. Kosala is the name of the 71st mela and is also the signature of the composer, Margadarsi Seshayyangar.
7. Names of prominent musicians who have made the raga, the subject of their exclusive study, practice, and research and who have been honoured with the name of the raga itself as a mark of recognition.
8. Current raga or obsolete raga.
Ragas like Mohana and Bhairavi are current ragas. Ragas like Kondamalahari and Mukharipantu which were in vogue in the 15th century have since become obsolete. The latter two ragas figure in the songs of the Tallapakam composers.
Saraswati is the Goddess of music; and appropriately enough, the names of a good many ragas bear feminine (gender) endings. Energy raga has a nada rupa or an aesthetic sound form. The Deified form of the raga is called the Devatatma rupa.
South Indian music is one and indivisible. The ragas form the fountain source of all classical melodies and some of the folk melodies. The above-mentioned 72+ points help one to get a true and a complete picture of a raga covering its scientific, cultural and historical aspects. In addition to the lakshana of the raga, every detail of academic interest concerning the raga is covered by the above-mentioned points. No study of a raga is complete without a study of some of the brilliant lakshyas or compositions in it. Classical compositions present all the quintessential aspects of ragas and constitute ideal stepping stones to the attainment of raga jnana, the ultimate aim of all musical studies. Since each composition delineates a particular aspect of the raga, the importance of the study of a good number of classical compositions in it, needs no emphasis.
1. The origin and history of the raga and its name. For example, Nadaramakriya and Madhyamadi are the earlier names of Nadanamakriya and Madhyamavati. Ragas like Nadanamakriya and Kuranji owe their origin to folk melodies. Ragas like Sankarabharana and Todi can be traced to the murchanas of shadja grama.
2.The introduction of dha in Sriraga is a later development. It was introduced to ensure its status as a mela by the author of the Asampurna mela paddhati. The introduction of dha made the shadava avarohana become asampurna avarohana with two vakra swaras. Classical compositions like the gita-Minakshi Jayakamakshi, the Pancharatna kriti- Endaro mahanu bhavulu and the kriti- Vanajasana vinuta nata do not use the dhaivata.
Mayamalavagaula was mentioned as the janaka mela of Vasanta and Saurashtra at a time when the scheme of 72 melas had not been thought of. Suryakantam will now be their correct janaka mela.
Khamas which was an upanga raga in the time of Tyagaraia, has since become bhashanga.
3. Arsha prayogas ie, phrases which were once in use in the raga but later fell into desuetude. Examples are S d p m in the kriti Nidu murtini in Natakuranji and p n S in the gita Pahi Sri Ramachandra in Anandabhairavi. When those compositions are sung, they are sung with the arsha prayogas.
4. The classical works on music in which the raga is referred to.
5. The earliest composer to compose in this raga.
The earliest composition in this raga and other compositions of later composers which show newer facets of the raga. In Shanmukhapriya raga, Vaddenevaru of Tyagaraja and Martvere dikkvea rayya rama of the later composer, Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar are examples
6. Whether the name of the raga stands for or conveys, some other musical idea or concept.
Vasanta and Lalita for example, are the names of ragas and also the names of talas in the scheme of 108 talas. Kosala is the name of the 71st mela and is also the signature of the composer, Margadarsi Seshayyangar.
7. Names of prominent musicians who have made the raga, the subject of their exclusive study, practice, and research and who have been honoured with the name of the raga itself as a mark of recognition.
8. Current raga or obsolete raga.
Ragas like Mohana and Bhairavi are current ragas. Ragas like Kondamalahari and Mukharipantu which were in vogue in the 15th century have since become obsolete. The latter two ragas figure in the songs of the Tallapakam composers.
Saraswati is the Goddess of music; and appropriately enough, the names of a good many ragas bear feminine (gender) endings. Energy raga has a nada rupa or an aesthetic sound form. The Deified form of the raga is called the Devatatma rupa.
South Indian music is one and indivisible. The ragas form the fountain source of all classical melodies and some of the folk melodies. The above-mentioned 72+ points help one to get a true and a complete picture of a raga covering its scientific, cultural and historical aspects. In addition to the lakshana of the raga, every detail of academic interest concerning the raga is covered by the above-mentioned points. No study of a raga is complete without a study of some of the brilliant lakshyas or compositions in it. Classical compositions present all the quintessential aspects of ragas and constitute ideal stepping stones to the attainment of raga jnana, the ultimate aim of all musical studies. Since each composition delineates a particular aspect of the raga, the importance of the study of a good number of classical compositions in it, needs no emphasis.